The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation: Understanding its Dynamics and Implications for Europe’s Climate

Introduction: Understanding the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC)

The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) represents a critical component of the Earth’s climate system, functioning as a vast network of ocean currents within the Atlantic Ocean ¹. This system acts as a global conveyor belt, playing a fundamental role in regulating the planet’s temperature by transporting warm surface waters from the tropics northwards and returning cold, deep waters southwards ¹. The AMOC is not an isolated phenomenon but rather an integral part of the larger global ocean conveyor belt, also known as thermohaline circulation, which is driven by density differences in seawater arising from variations in temperature and salinity ¹. This intricate circulation pattern forms a substantial vertical loop that extends throughout the entire Atlantic basin, from the ocean’s surface to its deepest regions ⁴. The three-dimensional nature of the AMOC, encompassing both surface and deep currents, makes it potentially vulnerable to disruptions that can affect water density at various depths and across different latitudes ². Furthermore, its role as a key element within the global ocean conveyor belt signifies that alterations to the AMOC can have far-reaching consequences for other ocean basins and global climate patterns, extending beyond the regional impacts observed within the Atlantic ¹.

The driving force behind the AMOC is the thermohaline circulation. This process begins as warm, less dense surface waters, exemplified by the Gulf Stream in the North Atlantic, move towards the Earth’s poles ¹. As these waters reach the colder polar regions, they release heat into the atmosphere and undergo a transformation that involves the formation of sea ice. During this ice formation, salt is expelled from the freezing water, leading to an increase in the salinity of the remaining ocean water ¹. This cold, highly saline water becomes denser than the surrounding waters and consequently sinks deep into the ocean, forming what is known as North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW), which then begins its southward journey at great depths ¹. Eventually, this deep, cold water is drawn back towards the surface in warmer regions through a process called upwelling, where it warms and completes the cycle of the AMOC ¹. The density-driven nature of this circulation makes it particularly sensitive to changes in the delicate balance of temperature and salinity, especially in the high-latitude North Atlantic, where the sinking of dense water initiates the deep southward flow ¹.

The AMOC plays a crucial role in regulating the climate of Europe, particularly Northwestern Europe and the United Kingdom, contributing to their relatively mild conditions compared to other regions situated at similar latitudes ³. By transporting a significant amount of warm water from the tropics towards the north, the AMOC moderates the winter temperatures and contributes to the overall milder climate experienced across Western Europe ⁴. In fact, the AMOC is responsible for approximately 90% of the total northward heat transport within the Atlantic Ocean, underscoring its dominant role in this critical process ⁶. This substantial heat transfer mechanism highlights the significant dependence of Europe’s current temperate climate on the continuous and robust functioning of the AMOC, making the continent especially vulnerable to any substantial weakening or disruption of this oceanic circulation ⁴.

The sheer scale of the AMOC’s operation is remarkable. It is estimated that this system transports an astounding 17 million cubic meters of water northwards every single second ⁴. This immense movement of water also carries an estimated 1.2 peta Watts (PW) of heat towards the north, an amount that is approximately 100 times greater than the total global energy production from all sources combined ⁴. The sheer magnitude of these figures underscores the fundamental role that the AMOC plays in the Earth’s energy balance and highlights the potential for significant climate shifts if this massive transport of water and heat is altered in any substantial way ⁴.

Causes of AMOC Slowdown

Human-induced climate change is widely acknowledged as the primary factor contributing to the observed and projected weakening of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) ³. The increasing global temperatures resulting from the enhanced greenhouse effect are leading to a warming of the ocean surface, particularly in the North Atlantic, which in turn reduces the density of the surface waters ³. Simultaneously, the accelerated melting of land-based ice, most notably the Greenland ice sheet, along with Arctic sea ice, introduces significant volumes of freshwater into the North Atlantic. This influx of freshwater dilutes the salinity of the ocean and further reduces the density of the surface waters ³. Changes in precipitation patterns associated with climate change can also contribute to an increased input of freshwater into the North Atlantic region ³. The combined effect of warmer temperatures and reduced salinity results in surface waters that are less dense and therefore less likely to sink in the North Atlantic, a crucial process that drives the AMOC’s southward flow at depth ³. This convergence of climate change-related factors is exerting a multi-faceted influence on the AMOC, all of which act to decrease the density of North Atlantic surface waters and impede the sinking mechanism that powers this vital ocean circulation ³.

The melting of the Greenland ice sheet, a direct consequence of human-induced global warming, has been a significant contributor to the freshening of the subpolar North Atlantic Ocean. Since 1993, it is estimated that approximately 5000 cubic kilometers of freshwater have been added to this critical region ⁶. This substantial addition of freshwater directly lowers the concentration of salt in the ocean water, making it less dense and hindering its ability to sink, a key component of the AMOC’s operation ⁶. While the role of melting Arctic sea ice in directly weakening the AMOC is still under investigation, its contribution to the overall freshening of the North Atlantic cannot be disregarded ⁶. The accelerated melting of the Greenland ice sheet, in particular, poses a significant threat to the stability of the AMOC due to the direct introduction of large volumes of low-density freshwater into an area that is crucial for the formation of deep water ⁶.

Changes in the Earth’s hydrological cycle, driven by climate change, also play a role in the potential slowdown of the AMOC. As the atmosphere warms, its capacity to hold moisture increases, leading to the possibility of higher precipitation levels in certain regions, including the North Atlantic ³. Furthermore, alterations in weather patterns can affect the amount of river runoff into the Atlantic Ocean, potentially increasing the volume of freshwater entering the system ¹⁰. These changes in the hydrological cycle contribute to the overall freshening of the North Atlantic waters, compounding the effects of ice melt and further reducing the density of the surface waters ³.

The direct warming of the ocean surface waters in the North Atlantic, a result of increasing global temperatures, directly reduces the density of the water, making it less prone to sinking ³. This warming effect is further amplified by the influx of freshwater from melting ice and altered precipitation patterns, which further decreases the salinity and consequently the density of the surface waters ³. The resulting reduction in the density difference between the surface and deep waters weakens the thermohaline circulation, which serves as the fundamental driving mechanism for the AMOC ¹. The interplay between ocean warming and freshwater input creates a significant impediment to the sinking of water in the North Atlantic, which is the core process that sustains the strength of the AMOC ¹.

Implications for Europe’s Climate

A substantial weakening or even a collapse of the AMOC could trigger significant changes in Europe’s climate ⁴. One of the most direct consequences would be a potential cooling of Northern Europe due to the diminished transport of warm tropical waters northward ⁴. Some studies suggest that this cooling could be quite pronounced, potentially leading to a scenario resembling the «Little Ice Age» of past centuries, with significant temperature drops occurring over relatively short periods ⁷. While Northern Europe might experience cooling, other regions globally, particularly in the tropics and the Southern Hemisphere, could see an intensification of the ongoing warming trend as heat distribution patterns within the global climate system are altered ². The impact on temperature will likely be regionally differentiated, with the potential cooling in the North Atlantic and Europe contrasting with warming trends elsewhere ². The magnitude of cooling in Europe could be substantial, potentially offsetting some of the global warming effects in the region, but this cooling would likely bring its own set of challenges ⁷.

Changes in the strength of the AMOC are also projected to cause significant shifts in rainfall patterns across Europe and the globe ⁴. Many climate models suggest a general decrease in precipitation across the midlatitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, which includes parts of Europe ⁶. Southern Europe, already prone to drier conditions, could experience even less rainfall, potentially exacerbating existing water scarcity issues and increasing the risk of droughts and wildfires ⁷. Interestingly, some research indicates that Northwestern Europe might see an increase in precipitation, possibly due to alterations in the jet stream and storm tracks ¹⁹. The impact on rainfall will likely vary across Europe, with some regions facing increased dryness while others might experience more precipitation, leading to diverse challenges for water management and agriculture ⁶.

Furthermore, a slowdown or collapse of the AMOC is anticipated to destabilize atmospheric circulation patterns, potentially leading to a rise in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events across Europe ⁴. This could manifest as stronger and more frequent storms, including hurricanes and events with torrential rainfall, particularly along the European coastlines ⁷. Winter storms might become more severe, bringing increased snowfall to some areas, while other regions could experience more intense heatwaves and prolonged periods of drought ¹⁹. The disruption of the AMOC’s heat transport function could inject more energy into the atmosphere, fueling more turbulent and unpredictable weather patterns across the continent ⁴.

The relationship between the AMOC and atmospheric circulation is complex, and changes in the ocean current can significantly influence large-scale atmospheric patterns, including the position and strength of the jet stream over the North Atlantic and Europe ⁴. A weakened AMOC might intensify the temperature difference between the midlatitudes and the Arctic, potentially strengthening the jet stream. Interestingly, a stronger jet stream could lead to less atmospheric blocking, which might result in a reduction in the frequency of winter cold spells in some parts of Europe, even amidst an overall cooling trend ¹⁸. Additionally, variations in the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), a major driver of European weather patterns, are also linked to the variability of the AMOC, further complicating the prediction of regional climate impacts ²¹.

Consequences of Climate Change in Europe due to AMOC Slowdown

The anticipated cooler temperatures and altered rainfall patterns resulting from a potential AMOC slowdown could have significant consequences for agriculture and food security across Europe ⁹. Drier summers in many key agricultural regions could lead to reduced crop yields and impact livestock production ⁹. An increased frequency and severity of droughts could strain water resources that are essential for irrigation and animal husbandry, potentially leading to water restrictions and crop failures ⁷. Changes in the timing and intensity of rainfall could also disrupt established farming practices and necessitate a shift towards more resilient or alternative crops that require less water ¹⁹. Moreover, disruptions to global weather patterns caused by an AMOC slowdown could affect agricultural production in other parts of the world, potentially impacting Europe’s food supply chains and import dependencies ¹⁹. The agricultural sector in Europe is therefore highly vulnerable to the climate changes induced by an AMOC slowdown, potentially leading to reduced food production, economic losses for farmers, and challenges to overall food security on the continent ⁹.

The AMOC plays a critical role in the distribution of nutrients and the regulation of ocean temperatures, both of which are essential for maintaining healthy marine ecosystems ⁴. A weakening or collapse of the AMOC could disrupt these vital nutrient flows and alter established temperature regimes, potentially leading to shifts in the distribution of marine species, declines in fish populations, and changes in the overall structure and function of marine ecosystems, with significant implications for fisheries and aquaculture ⁴. On land, changes in temperature and precipitation patterns could alter existing habitats, affecting the distribution and survival of various plant and animal species, potentially leading to a loss of biodiversity and instability in terrestrial ecosystems ¹⁰. The ecological consequences of an AMOC slowdown are likely to be widespread, affecting both marine and terrestrial environments through altered physical conditions and nutrient availability, potentially resulting in significant changes to biodiversity ⁴.

While global sea level rise is primarily driven by the thermal expansion of seawater and the melting of land ice, alterations in ocean circulation patterns, such as a weakening AMOC, can contribute to regional variations in sea level ⁴. A slowdown of the AMOC could lead to a redistribution of ocean heat, potentially causing a faster rate of sea level rise along the eastern coast of North America and, to a lesser extent, along some European coastlines due to the thermal expansion of seawater in those regions ¹. Furthermore, changes in ocean dynamics associated with a weakened AMOC could directly influence coastal sea levels in certain areas ⁴. European coastal communities, already facing the challenges of global sea level rise, could experience an additional increase due to AMOC slowdown, further exacerbating coastal erosion and the risk of inundation ⁴.

The anticipated increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, such as storms, floods, and heatwaves, associated with an AMOC slowdown would place significant stress on existing infrastructure in Europe, including transportation networks, energy grids, and water management systems ⁴. Rising sea levels would further threaten coastal infrastructure, increasing the risk of damage from storm surges and coastal flooding, potentially requiring substantial investments in upgrades and defenses ⁴. European infrastructure, designed for historical climate conditions, may not be sufficiently resilient to withstand the increased stresses from extreme weather and sea level rise linked to AMOC changes, necessitating significant investments in resilience and adaptation ⁴.

The combined impacts of an AMOC slowdown on agriculture, fisheries, ecosystems, and infrastructure are likely to generate substantial socio-economic pressures and significant economic costs for Europe ¹⁰. Reduced agricultural yields and disruptions to fisheries could lead to food shortages, price increases, and economic hardship for those reliant on these sectors ¹⁹. Damage to infrastructure from extreme weather and sea level rise would necessitate significant financial resources for repair and reconstruction ⁴. Changes in temperature could also affect energy demand, with potentially increased heating needs in Northern Europe potentially offsetting some reduced cooling needs elsewhere ⁷. The far-reaching consequences of an AMOC slowdown across multiple sectors are likely to translate into significant economic burdens and social challenges for European societies, requiring proactive planning and resource allocation ¹⁰.

Predictions of AMOC Slowdown and Potential Collapse

The prevailing scientific understanding, based on simulations from climate models, indicates that the AMOC is very likely to weaken during the 21st century as global greenhouse gas concentrations continue to rise ². However, the precise extent and rate of this weakening exhibit considerable variability across different climate models and under various future emission scenarios ⁸. A critical area of ongoing research and debate centers on whether this gradual weakening could potentially lead to a more abrupt and substantial decline, or even a complete cessation, of the AMOC once a critical «tipping point» is crossed ⁴. Recent studies employing a range of methodologies, including statistical analysis of observational data and sophisticated climate modeling, have produced diverse predictions, with some suggesting a relatively low probability of collapse within this century ³ while others warn of a potentially much higher risk, with a collapse being possible within the coming decades ⁷.

Some recent research has suggested the possibility of a near-term AMOC collapse, with estimations indicating it could occur as early as 2025 ⁷ or before 2050 ⁷. A study conducted by researchers at the University of Copenhagen estimated a 95% confidence interval for a potential collapse to be between 2025 and 2095, with the most likely timing around the year 2057 ⁷. Another study utilizing reanalysis data estimated a mean tipping time of 2050, with a 10-90% confidence interval ranging from 2037 to 2064 ⁴³. In contrast, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), in its Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) published in 2021, concluded with medium confidence that an abrupt collapse of the AMOC is unlikely to occur before the year 2100 ³, while still acknowledging the potential for such an event to occur beyond this century, particularly if greenhouse gas emissions continue on a high trajectory ¹².

The IPCC’s AR6 report, while stating that an abrupt AMOC collapse before 2100 is unlikely with medium confidence ³, has faced challenges from a number of recent scientific studies and an open letter signed by over 40 leading climate scientists ⁹. These scientists argue that the risk of an AMOC collapse within this century has been significantly underestimated and point to evidence suggesting a more rapid weakening than projected by many climate models ⁹. Concerns have also been raised that the climate models used in the IPCC assessments might be biased towards a higher level of stability in the AMOC than what might be the case in the real world, potentially underestimating the risk of a tipping point ⁶.

The concept of a «tipping point» is critical in the context of the AMOC, referring to a critical threshold beyond which the system could undergo a rapid and potentially irreversible transition to a much weaker state or even a complete shutdown ⁴. The AMOC is considered a potential climate tipping element due to the existence of self-reinforcing feedback mechanisms, such as the «salt feedback,» which could accelerate its weakening once a certain threshold is crossed ⁴. Identifying the precise location of this tipping point and assessing how close the AMOC might be to it is a major focus of current scientific research ⁴.

The following table summarizes some of the predictions regarding AMOC slowdown and potential collapse from various scientific studies and reports:

Uncertainties in Current Predictions

Current predictions regarding the future of the AMOC are subject to several significant uncertainties. Climate models, while powerful tools for understanding climate dynamics, have inherent limitations in their ability to fully and accurately represent all the complex physical processes and feedback mechanisms that govern the AMOC’s behavior ⁴. For instance, some models may oversimplify or not adequately account for the full impact of factors such as the melting of the Greenland ice sheet and the resulting freshwater input into the North Atlantic, which is a crucial driver of potential AMOC weakening ⁶. Furthermore, there exists a considerable degree of diversity in the internal variability of the AMOC as simulated across different climate models, leading to a range of projections for its future evolution ⁴. Climate models can also have inherent biases in their representation of ocean circulation and other relevant climate variables, which can affect the reliability of their AMOC projections ⁶.

The AMOC is a dynamic system that naturally experiences fluctuations in its strength and structure across various timescales due to natural climate variability ². Disentangling these natural variations from long-term trends that might be driven by human-caused climate change presents a significant challenge in analyzing observational data and making accurate predictions ². Natural climate oscillations, such as the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), can also influence the AMOC on decadal timescales, adding another layer of complexity to the prediction of its future behavior ²⁹.

Continuous, direct measurements of the entire AMOC system have only been available since around 2004, with projects like RAPID ³. Information regarding the AMOC’s behavior prior to this period relies on indirect evidence and reconstructions derived from proxy data, such as sea surface temperature and salinity patterns, or ocean sediments, which can have their own inherent limitations and uncertainties ². The relatively short duration of these direct observational records makes it difficult to establish definitive long-term trends and to fully comprehend the AMOC’s natural cycles and its response to external factors over extended periods ².

The scientific community is actively engaged in ongoing debate regarding the likelihood, timing, and magnitude of a significant AMOC slowdown or collapse ². Some recent studies have presented findings that seem to contradict earlier research, suggesting that the AMOC might be more resilient to future warming than previously thought, or that a significant decline has not yet been definitively observed ¹³. There are also ongoing debates regarding the most reliable methodologies for reconstructing past AMOC behavior and for detecting early warning signals that might indicate an approaching collapse ².

Potential Mitigation and Adaptation Measures for Europe

The most critical and widely supported measure to mitigate the risk of a significant AMOC slowdown or collapse is the rapid and substantial reduction of global greenhouse gas emissions ⁷. By limiting the overall extent of global warming, the rate of ice melt from Greenland and the Arctic can be slowed, and the warming of the North Atlantic surface waters can be minimized, thereby reducing the primary factors that drive the weakening of the AMOC ⁷. A swift and comprehensive transition away from the use of fossil fuels towards renewable energy sources is essential to achieve the necessary reductions in greenhouse gas emissions ⁷.

Given the potential for a weakened AMOC and its associated climate changes, Europe needs to proactively develop and implement robust adaptation strategies across various sectors ⁴. These strategies should be flexible and based on the most up-to-date scientific evidence, while also taking into account the specific vulnerabilities and needs of different regions within Europe ⁴. Examples of potential adaptation measures include upgrading existing infrastructure to be more resilient to the anticipated increase in extreme weather events and sea level rise ¹⁰; developing drought-resistant crop varieties and implementing more efficient water management techniques in the agricultural sector ¹¹; enhancing coastal protection through a combination of natural and engineered defenses against increased erosion and inundation ¹⁰; and strengthening public health systems to be better prepared to address potential temperature extremes and shifts in disease patterns ⁵². Establishing effective early warning systems for extreme weather events will also be crucial for minimizing their potential impacts on communities and infrastructure ¹⁴.

Addressing the complex challenges posed by the AMOC and climate change necessitates strong international cooperation in both scientific research and the implementation of effective policy actions ⁴. Governments and international organizations must work together to develop and implement comprehensive policies aimed at achieving significant reductions in global greenhouse gas emissions and to provide support for adaptation efforts in regions that are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of a weakened AMOC ⁴. Continued and enhanced investment in scientific research and sustained monitoring of the AMOC are essential for improving our fundamental understanding of its intricate dynamics and for refining the accuracy of predictions regarding its future behavior ². Finally, raising public awareness about the potential risks associated with changes in the AMOC and fostering a sense of urgency for taking action on climate change are also critical components of a comprehensive and effective response ⁵².

The following table outlines potential mitigation and adaptation measures for Europe to address the impacts of a weakened AMOC:

Conclusion: Addressing the Challenges Posed by a Changing AMOC

The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) is a critical component of the global climate system, playing a vital role in regulating Europe’s temperate climate. However, mounting scientific evidence suggests that this crucial ocean current system is likely weakening due to human-induced climate change, primarily driven by rising ocean temperatures and an increased influx of freshwater from melting ice and altered precipitation patterns. A significant slowdown or collapse of the AMOC could have profound and potentially devastating consequences for Europe, leading to substantial cooling in the north, altered rainfall patterns across the continent, and an increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events. These climatic shifts could severely impact agriculture and food security, disrupt marine and terrestrial ecosystems, contribute to sea level rise along European coastlines, and place significant stress on existing infrastructure, ultimately leading to substantial socio-economic pressures and economic costs.

While climate models generally predict a weakening of the AMOC throughout the 21st century, there remains significant uncertainty regarding the precise timing and magnitude of this change, as well as the possibility of a more abrupt and irreversible collapse beyond a critical tipping point. Recent scientific studies have presented a range of predictions, with some suggesting a collapse could occur within the next few decades, while others, including the IPCC, currently assess such an event as unlikely before 2100. This ongoing scientific debate underscores the complexity of the AMOC system and the limitations of current modeling capabilities, as well as the challenges in obtaining long-term observational data to validate these predictions.

Addressing the potential challenges posed by a changing AMOC requires a two-pronged approach involving both aggressive mitigation efforts and proactive adaptation strategies. The most fundamental step is a rapid and substantial reduction in global greenhouse gas emissions to limit further climate warming and reduce the primary drivers of AMOC weakening. Simultaneously, Europe needs to develop and implement comprehensive adaptation measures across various sectors, including agriculture, coastal management, infrastructure, and public health, to enhance resilience and minimize the negative impacts of the anticipated climate changes. International cooperation in research, policy development, and the implementation of these measures is essential for effectively tackling this global challenge. Continued investment in scientific research and monitoring of the AMOC is also crucial for reducing uncertainties and improving our ability to predict its future behavior. Given the potential seriousness of the issue for Europe’s climate and society, proactive and coordinated action on both mitigation and adaptation is of paramount importance.

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39. expert reaction to a modelling study suggesting that AMOC may be resilient to future warming, fecha de acceso: marzo 30, 2025, https://www.sciencemediacentre.org/expert-reaction-to-a-modelling-study-suggesting-that-amoc-may-be-resilient-to-future-warming/
40. New study finds that critical ocean current has not declined in the last 60 years, fecha de acceso: marzo 30, 2025, https://www.whoi.edu/press-room/news-release/no-amoc-decline/
41. A collapse of the AMOC in this century is unlikely, says modelling study, fecha de acceso: marzo 30, 2025, https://sciencemediacentre.es/en/collapse-amoc-century-unlikely-says-modelling-study
42. Climate change: AMOC likely to withstand future warming – News – – University of Exeter, fecha de acceso: marzo 30, 2025, https://news.exeter.ac.uk/faculty-of-environment-science-and-economy/climate-change-amoc-likely-to-withstand-future-warming/
43. Probability Estimates of a 21st Century AMOC Collapse – arXiv, fecha de acceso: marzo 30, 2025, https://arxiv.org/html/2406.11738v1
44. The AMOC is slowing, it’s stable, it’s slowing, no, yes – RealClimate, fecha de acceso: marzo 30, 2025, https://www.realclimate.org/index.php/archives/2025/01/the-amoc-is-slowing-its-stable-its-slowing-no-yes/
45. AMOC study: Critical current has not declined in the last 60 years – Oceanographic, fecha de acceso: marzo 30, 2025, https://oceanographicmagazine.com/news/new-study-argues-amoc-has-not-declined-in-the-last-60-years/
46. How will media report on this new AMOC study? – RealClimate, fecha de acceso: marzo 30, 2025, https://www.realclimate.org/index.php/archives/2025/02/how-will-media-report-on-this-new-amoc-study/
47. Weakening, tipping or going strong? Experts convene in Brussels to start a review on the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) | JPI Oceans, fecha de acceso: marzo 30, 2025, https://www.jpi-oceans.eu/en/weakening-tipping-or-going-strong-experts-convene-brussels-start-review-amoc
48. AMOC weakening, AMOC collapse – how likely is it? When and how bad will it be? : r/climatechange – Reddit, fecha de acceso: marzo 30, 2025, https://www.reddit.com/r/climatechange/comments/1if5xni/amoc_weakening_amoc_collapse_how_likely_is_it/
49. What Uncertainties Remain in Climate Science? – State of the Planet – Columbia University, fecha de acceso: marzo 30, 2025, https://news.climate.columbia.edu/2023/01/12/what-uncertainties-remain-in-climate-science/
50. AMOC stability amid tipping ice sheets: the crucial role of rate and noise – ESD, fecha de acceso: marzo 30, 2025, https://esd.copernicus.org/articles/15/859/
51. Is AMOC More Predictable than North Atlantic Heat Content? – AMS Journals, fecha de acceso: marzo 30, 2025, https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/clim/27/10/jcli-d-13-00274.1.pdf
52. HOW TO AMOC – charm-eu, fecha de acceso: marzo 30, 2025, https://charm-eu.eu/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/AMOC-Guide_250213_ENG.pdf
53. Seasonality of meridional overturning in the subpolar North Atlantic: implications for relying on the streamfunction maximum as a metric of AMOC slowdown – EGUsphere, fecha de acceso: marzo 30, 2025, https://egusphere.copernicus.org/preprints/2025/egusphere-2025-616/
54. Earth system tipping points are a threat to Europe – how to get prepared? – EU Science Hub, fecha de acceso: marzo 30, 2025, https://joint-research-centre.ec.europa.eu/jrc-news-and-updates/earth-system-tipping-points-are-threat-europe-how-get-prepared-2025-02-28_en
55. Why do we need to strengthen climate adaptations? Scenarios and financial lines of defense, fecha de acceso: marzo 30, 2025, https://www.ecb.europa.eu/pub/pdf/scpwps/ecb.wp3005~35f938a452.en.pdf
56. Is the AMOC headed for a tipping point? Interview with Henk Dijkstra, fecha de acceso: marzo 30, 2025, https://thebulletin.org/premium/2025-03/is-the-amoc-headed-for-a-tipping-point-interview-with-henk-dijkstra/
57. Generalized stability landscape of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation – ESD, fecha de acceso: marzo 30, 2025, https://esd.copernicus.org/articles/15/1417/2024/
58. Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate —, fecha de acceso: marzo 30, 2025, https://www.ipcc.ch/srocc/